The sudden spurt in famines in colonial India from the mid-eighteenth century can be attributed to several economic, political, and environmental factors tied directly to British colonial policies. Here’s a detailed breakdown of the reasons:
1. Economic Exploitation and the Drain of Wealth
- Colonial Economic Policies: The British economic policies were designed to maximize the extraction of wealth from India, with little concern for the welfare of the local population. India was turned into a source of raw materials for British industries and a market for British goods. This disrupted traditional agricultural practices and local industries, pushing farmers into poverty.
- Drain of Wealth: A significant portion of India’s wealth was funneled to Britain through various mechanisms like taxes, profits from trade, and payments to British officials, leaving the Indian economy impoverished. This reduced India’s ability to respond to and recover from famines.
2. Introduction of Cash Crops
- Shift from Food Crops to Cash Crops: The British encouraged the cultivation of cash crops such as cotton, indigo, opium, tea, and jute for export to Britain, reducing the area under food crops. This shift diminished local food production, making the population more vulnerable to famines when monsoons failed or food supplies became scarce.
- Mono-cropping: The promotion of cash crops led to mono-cropping, which reduced biodiversity in agriculture, increasing susceptibility to crop failure in the event of droughts or pests.
3. High Taxation and Land Revenue Systems
- Heavy Land Taxes: The British introduced harsh and exploitative land revenue systems like the Permanent Settlement (in Bengal) and Ryotwari (in southern India), which required farmers to pay fixed, high taxes regardless of crop yields. When farmers couldn’t meet these demands during poor harvests, they faced confiscation of their land and crops.
- Revenue Priority over Relief: The colonial administration was more concerned with collecting revenue than providing relief during famines. As a result, even during droughts and crop failures, farmers had to sell their produce to pay taxes, leaving them without enough food.
4. Neglect of Traditional Irrigation Systems
- Disruption of Indigenous Systems: India had an extensive network of traditional irrigation systems, like tanks, wells, and canals, maintained by local communities. The British administration neglected these systems, and as a result, they fell into disrepair, leaving agriculture more dependent on unpredictable monsoons.
- Lack of Investment in Infrastructure: The British did not invest adequately in improving agricultural infrastructure or modern irrigation projects that could have mitigated the impact of droughts and famines.
5. Unresponsive Famine Policies
- Laissez-faire Approach: The British government often adhered to a laissez-faire economic policy, believing that markets should determine food prices and supply, even during famines. They were reluctant to interfere in the economy or provide sufficient relief, leading to widespread suffering and death.
- Inadequate Relief Measures: When famines did occur, the relief measures provided by the British were grossly insufficient. For example, relief camps and ration systems were often poorly managed, with high thresholds for receiving aid. Starving people had to work long hours in harsh conditions to receive minimal food, leading to high mortality rates.
6. Disruption of Traditional Grain Storage
- Decline of Community-Based Systems: Before British rule, Indian communities had traditional grain storage systems to prepare for periods of scarcity. These systems included community granaries and storage for bad years. The British dismantled many of these local systems and did not establish alternative mechanisms to ensure food security during crises.
- Dependence on Commercial Grain Markets: The commercialization of agriculture under British rule meant that grain was increasingly traded in the market rather than stored for local consumption. In times of famine, grain prices soared due to hoarding and speculation, making food inaccessible to the poor.
7. Introduction of Railways
- Railways as a Double-Edged Sword: The British often justified their lack of famine prevention policies by pointing to the construction of railways, which they claimed would facilitate the movement of food supplies to famine-stricken areas. However, railways also exacerbated famines by enabling the export of food from famine-hit regions to other parts of India or abroad, rather than feeding the local population.
- Export-Oriented Trade: Food grain was often exported to feed British markets or other colonies, leaving Indian people with shortages. During the Great Famine of 1876–1878, large quantities of grain were exported from India, despite the widespread hunger.
8. Global Factors
- Climatic Events: During this period, there were several instances of drought caused by climatic events like El Niño, which contributed to failed monsoons and crop shortages. However, the severity of the resulting famines was greatly worsened by the socio-economic policies of the British.
- War and Trade Disruptions: The British involvement in global wars and trade conflicts also diverted resources and attention away from famine relief, exacerbating the suffering in India.
Conclusion
The surge in famines in colonial India from the mid-eighteenth century was not merely due to natural causes like droughts but largely a consequence of exploitative British policies. The shift from subsistence to commercial agriculture, heavy taxation, neglect of local infrastructure, and an inadequate response to famine conditions all contributed to the frequent and severe famines during British rule. These famines highlight the devastating impact of colonial economic policies on the Indian population.
